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13)Industrial waste Water Treatment

 13)  Discuss Industrial Wastewater Treatment  Introduction Industrial wastewater contains pollutants such as suspended solids, organic matter, oils, toxic chemicals, acids, alkalis and heavy metals. Treatment is necessary before reuse or discharge. Major Stages 1. Preliminary Treatment Screening Removes large floating materials such as: Plastics Wood Rags Large solid particles Grit Removal Removes sand, grit and other heavy inorganic particles. 2. Primary Treatment Sedimentation Wastewater is kept in settling tanks so that suspended solids settle as sludge. Oil and Grease Removal Oil separators or skimming systems remove floating oils and grease. 3. Secondary Treatment This stage mainly removes biodegradable organic matter using microorganisms. Activated Sludge Process Wastewater is aerated in the presence of microorganisms. Organic matter is biologically oxidized. Organic matter + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O + New biomass Trickling Filters Wastewater passes over a microbial film g...
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methylcyclohexane conformations

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  methylcyclohexane conformations: 1) Methylcyclohexane is cyclohexane in which one hydrogen atom is replaced with a methyl group substituent.  2) Methylcyclohexane can adopt two basic chair conformations:  one in which the methyl group is axial, and one in which it is equatorial .  3) The most stable conformation of methylcyclohexane is the  chair conformation in which the methyl group is equatorial. 4) The alternative chair conformation, in which the methyl group is axial, is 7.3 kJ/mol higher in energy.  5) This difference corresponds to a equatorial:axial conformer ratio of 19:1 at  25 °C.
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Conformations of Cyclohexane

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 Conformations of  Cyclohexane 1) Rings larger than cyclopentane would have angle strain if they were planar. However, this strain, together with the eclipsing strain inherent in a planar structure, can be relieved by puckering the ring.  2) Cyclohexane is a good example of a carbocyclic system that virtually eliminates eclipsing and angle strain by adopting non-planar conformations. 3)  Cycloheptane and cyclooctane have greater strain than cyclohexane, in large part due to transannular crowding (steric hindrance by groups on opposite sides of the ring). 4) Cyclohexane is rapidly rotating between the two most stable conformations known as the chair conformations in what is called the "Chair Flip" shown below. 5)   Several other notable cyclohexane conformations occur during the transition from one chair conformer to the other-  the boat, the twist, and the half-chair.   6) T he relative energies of the conformations is a direct reflection of their...
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